Guide

Reasoning and argument glossary

101 words that keep turning up in dense argument and reading passages. Each one comes with a usage cue so you learn it the way it actually appears, not as a dictionary entry.

Albeit: Although. Ex: 'the effect was real, albeit small.'
Alleged: Said to be true but not proven. Ex: 'the alleged violation is still under review.'
Ambiguous: Open to more than one interpretation. Ex: 'the term "success" is ambiguous here.'
Analogous: Comparable in a relevant respect. Ex: 'the two cases are analogous in structure but not in scale.'
Anecdotal: Based on personal stories rather than systematic evidence. Ex: 'the support is anecdotal and not statistically significant.'
Anomaly: An exception to a pattern. Ex: 'the 1998 data point is an anomaly.'
Antecedent: A thing that came before (esp. a cause). Ex: 'the recession was the antecedent of the reform.'
Assert: To state confidently, often without full proof. Ex: 'the passage merely asserts the link — it does not demonstrate it.'
Assumption: An unstated premise the argument requires to work. Ex: 'the assumption is that respondents told the truth.'
Bolster: To support or strengthen. Ex: 'the second study bolsters the researcher's claim.'
Cardinal: Of primary importance. Ex: 'the cardinal rule of the argument.'
Categorical: Absolute and without exception. Ex: 'a categorical denial.'
Causation: One thing producing another. Ex: 'the study confuses correlation with causation.'
Circumvent: To find a way around. Ex: 'the loophole lets firms circumvent the ban.'
Cogent: Clear, logical, and persuasive. Ex: 'a cogent argument leaves no gap between premise and conclusion.'
Concede: To admit a point, often reluctantly. Ex: 'the writer concedes one objection before rejecting the rest.'
Conclusion: The main point an argument tries to establish. Ex: 'the conclusion follows only if the assumption holds.'
Concomitant: Occurring together with something. Ex: 'the drop in wages was concomitant with automation.'
Confound: A hidden third factor that muddies a causal claim. Ex: 'income is a confound between education and health.'
Contingent: Depending on something else. Ex: 'approval is contingent on funding.'
Contravene: To conflict with or violate. Ex: 'the order contravenes the statute.'
Convergent: Coming together; agreeing. Ex: 'convergent evidence from three fields supports the model.'
Correlation: A statistical association between two variables. Ex: 'correlation does not establish which caused which.'
Corroborate: To confirm with additional evidence. Ex: 'a witness corroborates the timeline.'
Credulous: Too willing to believe. Ex: 'a credulous audience accepts the claim.'
Cursory: Hasty and superficial. Ex: 'a cursory review missed the flaw.'
Dichotomy: A division into two opposed parts. Ex: 'the author rejects the dichotomy between safety and freedom.'
Discrepancy: A difference that shouldn't be there. Ex: 'the discrepancy between the reports needs explaining.'
Divergent: Moving apart; differing. Ex: 'the two accounts are divergent on timing.'
Dubious: Doubtful; of questionable quality. Ex: 'the methodology is dubious.'
Empirical: Based on observation or experiment. Ex: 'empirical evidence undercuts the theoretical prediction.'
Endemic: Regularly found in a particular place or group. Ex: 'corruption is endemic to the system.'
Enduring: Lasting. Ex: 'an enduring principle of the doctrine.'
Ensuing: Happening as a result afterward. Ex: 'the ensuing debate lasted years.'
Ephemeral: Short-lived. Ex: 'the boost was ephemeral.'
Equivocate: To use a word in two different senses in one argument. Ex: 'the author equivocates between "free" as unpaid and as unrestricted.'
Ergo: Therefore. Ex: 'no evidence was found; ergo, the claim is unsupported.'
Exacerbate: To make worse. Ex: 'the new tariff exacerbates the shortage.'
Explicit: Stated directly. Ex: 'the author is explicit about her sources.'
Extrapolate: To extend a conclusion beyond the data. Ex: 'we cannot extrapolate from one city to the whole country.'
Fallacy: A flaw in reasoning. Ex: 'the ad hominem fallacy attacks the person, not the argument.'
Hence: For this reason; therefore. Ex: 'demand rose; hence, prices did too.'
Hypothesis: A proposed explanation to be tested. Ex: 'the hypothesis predicts a rise, but the data show a fall.'
Implicit: Implied but not directly stated. Ex: 'an implicit assumption behind the claim.'
Impugn: To call into question. Ex: 'the editorial impugns the study's motives, not its methods.'
Incipient: In an early stage. Ex: 'the trend is incipient but real.'
Inference: A conclusion that must follow from stated information. Ex: 'a valid inference goes no further than the evidence.'
Insofar: To the extent that. Ex: 'the plan works insofar as funding continues.'
Judicious: Showing good judgment. Ex: 'judicious use of the reserve fund.'
Meticulous: Extremely careful with detail. Ex: 'meticulous record-keeping caught the error.'
Mitigate: To make less severe. Ex: 'the policy mitigates but does not eliminate the risk.'
Nascent: Just coming into existence. Ex: 'the nascent industry lacks regulation.'
Necessary: Required for the conclusion; without it, the argument fails. Ex: 'a necessary condition, not a sufficient one.'
Nonetheless: In spite of that. Ex: 'the risks are known; nonetheless, adoption grew.'
Notwithstanding: In spite of; despite. Ex: 'notwithstanding the objections, the plan proceeded.'
Notwithstanding (that): Even though. Ex: 'notwithstanding that costs rose, output fell.'
Nuanced: Involving subtle distinctions. Ex: 'a nuanced position that neither side likes.'
Ostensible: Stated as the reason but possibly not the real one. Ex: 'the ostensible purpose of the meeting.'
Ostensibly: Apparently, on the surface (often implying it may not be the real reason). Ex: 'the tax is ostensibly for roads, but funds go elsewhere.'
Paradox: A seemingly self-contradictory statement or situation. Ex: 'the paradox is resolved once the timing is clarified.'
Paramount: More important than anything else. Ex: 'safety is paramount here.'
Perennial: Lasting or recurring year after year. Ex: 'a perennial complaint about the process.'
Pervasive: Spread throughout. Ex: 'the bias is pervasive in the sample.'
Posit: To put forward as a basis for argument. Ex: 'the theory posits that trade drives growth.'
Postulate: To assume as a starting point. Ex: 'the argument postulates a stable population.'
Preclude: To make impossible; to rule out. Ex: 'the rule precludes appeal after 30 days.'
Predominant: The most important or largest in influence. Ex: 'the predominant cause of the delay.'
Preeminent: Superior to all others. Ex: 'the preeminent scholar in her field.'
Premise: A stated reason offered in support of a conclusion. Ex: 'the premise assumes goodwill on both sides.'
Prevailing: Most common or dominant. Ex: 'the prevailing view among economists.'
Prevalent: Widespread in a group. Ex: 'the practice is prevalent in urban clinics.'
Proximate: Nearest in relationship (esp. proximate vs. ultimate cause). Ex: 'the proximate cause was the storm; the ultimate cause was climate change.'
Prudent: Careful and sensible. Ex: 'the prudent course is to wait.'
Purport: To claim or profess, often falsely. Ex: 'the study purports to prove causation but only shows correlation.'
Purported: Reputed or claimed. Ex: 'the purported cure lacked trials.'
Qualify: To limit or soften a claim. Ex: 'she qualifies her support with a warning about cost.'
Rebut: To offer opposing evidence or reasoning (does not necessarily prove false). Ex: 'the author rebuts the critic in the last paragraph.'
Reckless: Careless of consequences. Ex: 'reckless spending doomed the plan.'
Reconcile: To make two conflicting things consistent. Ex: 'the author tries to reconcile the two studies.'
Refute: To prove false with evidence or argument. Ex: 'the data refutes the assumption.'
Rigorous: Thorough and exacting. Ex: 'a rigorous test rules out the alternative.'
Salient: Most noticeable or important. Ex: 'the salient point of the passage is the author's disagreement with the study.'
Sanguine: Optimistic, esp. in a difficult situation. Ex: 'the CEO is sanguine about next quarter.'
Skeptical: Not easily convinced; having doubts. Ex: 'the reviewer remains skeptical of the effect size.'
Spurious: False or misleading, esp. a correlation with no causal link. Ex: 'the relationship is spurious once age is controlled for.'
Spurned: Rejected with contempt. Ex: 'the offer was spurned.'
Substantiate: To back up with evidence. Ex: 'the memo does not substantiate its main claim.'
Sufficient: Enough on its own to guarantee the conclusion. Ex: 'rain is sufficient to wet the ground; it is not necessary.'
Tacit: Understood without being said. Ex: 'a tacit agreement not to raise prices.'
Tantamount: Equivalent in effect or value. Ex: 'silence here is tantamount to consent.'
Theoretical: Concerned with theory rather than observed fact. Ex: 'the objection is purely theoretical.'
Thus: As a result; therefore. Ex: 'thus, the proposal fails on its own terms.'
Transient: Passing quickly. Ex: 'the effect is transient, not lasting.'
Ubiquitous: Present everywhere. Ex: 'smartphones are now ubiquitous.'
Undermine: To weaken, esp. an argument or authority. Ex: 'this counterexample undermines the author's conclusion.'
Unequivocal: Leaving no doubt. Ex: 'unequivocal support for the finding.'
Unwarranted: Not justified. Ex: 'an unwarranted leap from the evidence to the claim.'
Vindicate: To clear from blame or prove correct. Ex: 'later data vindicated the early skeptic.'
Vitiate: To weaken or invalidate. Ex: 'the missing witness vitiates the prosecution's case.'
Warranted: Justified; called for. Ex: 'the strong reaction was not warranted by the facts.'
Whereas: In contrast with the fact that. Ex: 'whereas the first study was small, the second was national.'